A Historical Geography
To fully understand geography, on must also have an understanding of history. If Geography can be described as the study of spatial relationships over time, then surely history plays an indelible role in any geographic enterprise. Without a historical context, the patterns that play out across human landscapes are almost without value. Certainly one can never hope to realize the continual ebb and flow of these patterns, or use them to any great extent in planning for a brighter future.
In particular, the First World War was in many ways a battle over geography: one common generalized view of the conflict is that Germany was jockeying for influence on a global, imperial scale alongside the French and British who jealously guarded their own. This view is older than the war itself, and the idea of war as a violent expression of realpolitik framed WWI for many leaders and academics in its time. Frank McMurray's Geography of the Great War was written in this vein and published immediately following the war's conclusion in 1919. Beyond interpretations of the events that took place from 1914 to 1918, the geographies of that time made immeasurable contributions and subtractions to the war efforts of those involved. For example, Russia and the United States had large mobilization issues and British feelings of safety were shattered when by bombing London, Germany caused a small hysteria across the Channel.
An investigation of the spatially dispersed consequences of the War therefore requires knowledge of the political and technological environment in which the fighting occurred. How the nations of the day viewed and reacted to one another is an inherent factor of the ways in which they waged their war. France's struggles to maintain territory, the British reluctance to engage in an extensive land war and the slow re-evaluation of tactics in reaction to changing technologies are but a handful of past events whose legacies are left on the landscape. Extensive trench networks, explosively disrupted soilscapes, and economic developments of the Great war permanently altered the course of Europe's future.
In particular, the First World War was in many ways a battle over geography: one common generalized view of the conflict is that Germany was jockeying for influence on a global, imperial scale alongside the French and British who jealously guarded their own. This view is older than the war itself, and the idea of war as a violent expression of realpolitik framed WWI for many leaders and academics in its time. Frank McMurray's Geography of the Great War was written in this vein and published immediately following the war's conclusion in 1919. Beyond interpretations of the events that took place from 1914 to 1918, the geographies of that time made immeasurable contributions and subtractions to the war efforts of those involved. For example, Russia and the United States had large mobilization issues and British feelings of safety were shattered when by bombing London, Germany caused a small hysteria across the Channel.
An investigation of the spatially dispersed consequences of the War therefore requires knowledge of the political and technological environment in which the fighting occurred. How the nations of the day viewed and reacted to one another is an inherent factor of the ways in which they waged their war. France's struggles to maintain territory, the British reluctance to engage in an extensive land war and the slow re-evaluation of tactics in reaction to changing technologies are but a handful of past events whose legacies are left on the landscape. Extensive trench networks, explosively disrupted soilscapes, and economic developments of the Great war permanently altered the course of Europe's future.
World War One ~ A Brief History
World War One ostensibly began over the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria by Serbian nationalists in June of 1914. The Archduke was not however especially popular, and in fact Austro-Hungarian leadership had been looking for an excuse to invade Serbia, their southern neighbor, for some time. After assuring that the German Empire would support them, the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war.
Russia quickly responded to the action by joining the Serbs, who Russia considered to be a small ally being bullied constantly by the Austrians and with whom the Russians had signed a defensive treaty years before. Furthermore, the Russians had treaties with the French and British which allowed for their entry to the conflict. A German treaty with the Ottoman Empire brought them into the conflict, and Austrian Aggression led to Italian involvement with the Allies by the end of 1914. The stage was set in Europe with Germany, Austro-Hungary, the Ottomans and Bulgaria allied against France, Britain, Russia and Italy (and Serbia, which was conquered in the first two months of fighting).
Russia quickly responded to the action by joining the Serbs, who Russia considered to be a small ally being bullied constantly by the Austrians and with whom the Russians had signed a defensive treaty years before. Furthermore, the Russians had treaties with the French and British which allowed for their entry to the conflict. A German treaty with the Ottoman Empire brought them into the conflict, and Austrian Aggression led to Italian involvement with the Allies by the end of 1914. The stage was set in Europe with Germany, Austro-Hungary, the Ottomans and Bulgaria allied against France, Britain, Russia and Italy (and Serbia, which was conquered in the first two months of fighting).
Germany, not wanting to fight the Russians on the East and the French on the West at the same time, enacted the “Schleiffen Plan” against the French, which called for the use of a majority of German troops and materiel against the French in a quick, massive invasion while the massive Russian army tried to mobilize. This was an attempt to recreate the victory of the Franco-Prussian war in which Prussia (later Germany) quickly defeated and embarrassed a French army that refused to modernize. After the French were no longer able to participate in any meaningful way, the German Army would about-face to fight the Russians in the East.
After meeting some immediate success, however, the fighting in the West resulted in a stalemate by late fall of 1914 after the miraculous saving of Paris in the battle of the Marne. Trench warfare would settle the lines into stable positions as few attempts at either side outflanking the other fell flat over the course of 1915. The French military had a policy of holding French territory at all costs, which made further gains by the German army even more costly. Despite the failure of the Schleiffen Plan to remove the French from the war quickly, deficiencies in Russian materiel and leadership led to smashing German victories with their inferior manpower which allowed the Empire to fight on two fronts, for a time.
After meeting some immediate success, however, the fighting in the West resulted in a stalemate by late fall of 1914 after the miraculous saving of Paris in the battle of the Marne. Trench warfare would settle the lines into stable positions as few attempts at either side outflanking the other fell flat over the course of 1915. The French military had a policy of holding French territory at all costs, which made further gains by the German army even more costly. Despite the failure of the Schleiffen Plan to remove the French from the war quickly, deficiencies in Russian materiel and leadership led to smashing German victories with their inferior manpower which allowed the Empire to fight on two fronts, for a time.
However, after miring formidable portions of its army at Verdun in February of 1916, the Germans were counter-attacked in summer 1916 on both fronts. First in June, the Brusilov offensive was marked by a sudden and dramatic improvement in Russian tactics to inflict a costly defeat on the Central Powers. However, revolution was soon to end Russian involvement in the War effort. Changes in leadership combined with extended supply lines and exhausted troops led to a slow retreat and early exit from the war in March of 1918.
On the Somme in July, the British led an offensive with French support that combined with pressures from Russia in the East and France in the south to exhaust Germany’s ability to continue on the scale that she had been. 1916 ended with losses for Germany on every side, and April of 1917 brought fresh troops from the United States into the fight, reinforcing the exhausted Europeans on the Western Front. IN an attempt to divide the Brits and French before the Americans arrived in earnest, general Ludendorf launched the Spring Offensive in March of 1918, pushing to within a hundred miles of Paris.
However, the successes of the push were limited by stretch supply lines and an inability to strengthen conquered territory. The Germans would ultimately be pushed back behind their starting positions by the end of July, and pressures at home grew for the leadership to end the war. The Allies would continue to press on and nearly into Germany until armistice was reached on 11 November, 1918.
On the Somme in July, the British led an offensive with French support that combined with pressures from Russia in the East and France in the south to exhaust Germany’s ability to continue on the scale that she had been. 1916 ended with losses for Germany on every side, and April of 1917 brought fresh troops from the United States into the fight, reinforcing the exhausted Europeans on the Western Front. IN an attempt to divide the Brits and French before the Americans arrived in earnest, general Ludendorf launched the Spring Offensive in March of 1918, pushing to within a hundred miles of Paris.
However, the successes of the push were limited by stretch supply lines and an inability to strengthen conquered territory. The Germans would ultimately be pushed back behind their starting positions by the end of July, and pressures at home grew for the leadership to end the war. The Allies would continue to press on and nearly into Germany until armistice was reached on 11 November, 1918.
Technologies of the Western Front
Several developments in engineering, metallurgy and chemistry brought by the end of the industrial revolution brought completely new weapons to bear in the Great War. The deadliest of these were the machine gun and long-distance artillery, but other new additions to international arsenals included gas, tanks, and airplanes. None of these weapons would prove as deadly as disease: Spanish Flu would claim one third of the conflict's casualties. However, the raised lethality and range of instruments of war would ultimately lead to new tactics and a new generation of warfare.
Bolt-action rifles, machine guns and rifled artillery allowed for new heights in defensive fortification. Defended ground became nearly impenetrable, successful assaults came after only massive shelling and loss of life. The improved range of the rifle combined with the incredible rate of fire for machine guns meant that death was all-but-certain for the soldier crossing the "no man's land" between opposing trenches. Defenders were further entrenched with the application of barbed wire to further encumber potential attackers. Concrete bunkers, especially pillboxes for machine gun nests, were built to withstand opposing bullets and even artillery shells while providing outlets to pepper enemy ranks with bullets.
Just in case the enemy was able to penetrate a trench line, the trenches were built in zig-zags so that infiltrators could not see or fire up the front line. Furthermore, trenches were built in layers such that even after the front trench was lost, troops could fall back to the second or third line of fortifications, complete with bunkhouses aimed straight into the back of the first line. Tracer bullets that emitted light as they flew became valuable for night defense and later in the war as anti-aircraft weapons.
Bolt-action rifles, machine guns and rifled artillery allowed for new heights in defensive fortification. Defended ground became nearly impenetrable, successful assaults came after only massive shelling and loss of life. The improved range of the rifle combined with the incredible rate of fire for machine guns meant that death was all-but-certain for the soldier crossing the "no man's land" between opposing trenches. Defenders were further entrenched with the application of barbed wire to further encumber potential attackers. Concrete bunkers, especially pillboxes for machine gun nests, were built to withstand opposing bullets and even artillery shells while providing outlets to pepper enemy ranks with bullets.
Just in case the enemy was able to penetrate a trench line, the trenches were built in zig-zags so that infiltrators could not see or fire up the front line. Furthermore, trenches were built in layers such that even after the front trench was lost, troops could fall back to the second or third line of fortifications, complete with bunkhouses aimed straight into the back of the first line. Tracer bullets that emitted light as they flew became valuable for night defense and later in the war as anti-aircraft weapons.
Advancements in defense were accompanied by advancements in methods to break that defense. The most significant offensive additions to WWI were rifled artillery with high-explosive shells and hydraulic recoil mechanisms that allowed for quick refire. Artillery barrages would eventually precede every major charge to take enemy trenches; these barrages would last for hours with the goal of pulverizing enemy resistance. Exposure to improvements in the lethal long-range firepower of these guns quickly taught combatants not to pack trenches with soldiers shoulder-to-shoulder as had been done (to increase firepower along the front); however trench systems proved strong and more anti-trench techniques would be developed such as the grenade, the tank and the German flame thrower. And gas.
Tear gas, phosgene, and especially mustard gas which lingered in low ground (re: trenches) necessitated the development of high-quality gas-masks to avoid painful injury or death. Once effective masks could defend against a gas, its tactical usefulness was reduced substantially. Rudimentary tanks had major reliability issues, but saw mixed success by the British and French in anti-trench applications. The German flamethrower also saw some success in clearing trenches, however its short range made it difficult to use.
Tear gas, phosgene, and especially mustard gas which lingered in low ground (re: trenches) necessitated the development of high-quality gas-masks to avoid painful injury or death. Once effective masks could defend against a gas, its tactical usefulness was reduced substantially. Rudimentary tanks had major reliability issues, but saw mixed success by the British and French in anti-trench applications. The German flamethrower also saw some success in clearing trenches, however its short range made it difficult to use.
Air and Naval warfare saw massive changes in the Great War as well. At the outbreak of the war, the usefulness of aircraft as fighters was debated among military leadership on both sides. Early allied use of the plane was constricted to reconnaissance operations, which did prove useful. As early airplanes could carry an extremely limited number of bombs, German Zeppelins led the way in bombing and received the majority of attention from Germany for the opening of the war. They were largely eventually replaced by slow two-seater aircraft which were considered easy targets for enemy aircraft and would thus be supplemented with fighter aircraft on a raid. German raids impacted British psychology especially strongly, encapsulated by the notion that "the bomber will always get through."
The development of interrupter gears allowed for guns that could fire through the arc of airplane propellers, which vastly improved the accuracy of fighter aircraft. This innovation was used in the German Spandau and British Vickers guns, and soon brought the world's first air war, complete with dogfights and "aces". With the proliferation of air fighting, artillery were re-purposed to anti-aircraft guns. These guns fired shells that produced black clouds and fragmented casing to destroy/inhibit enemy aircraft.
The development of interrupter gears allowed for guns that could fire through the arc of airplane propellers, which vastly improved the accuracy of fighter aircraft. This innovation was used in the German Spandau and British Vickers guns, and soon brought the world's first air war, complete with dogfights and "aces". With the proliferation of air fighting, artillery were re-purposed to anti-aircraft guns. These guns fired shells that produced black clouds and fragmented casing to destroy/inhibit enemy aircraft.
Image Credits -
Map of Empire: McMurray, Frank. "Figure 1 -- Map of the World showing possessions of the United States, Great Britain, France, and Germany." The Geography of the Great War. The MacMillan Co, 1919.
"The Archduke": Pietzner, Karl. "Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand von Österreich-Este, portrait." Published in "War of the Nations" New York Times 1919.
"French Soldiers in Trench": Tournassoud, Jean-Baptiste. c. 1916, Establissement Cinematographique et Photographique des Armees. http://www.awm.gov.au/exhibitions/captured/french/trench.asp
The Kaiser: PD scan by user Generale dei Bersaglieri retrieved from wikimedia http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kaiser_Guglielmo_II.jpg.
Pillbox: Photo by Blake Johnson, Sept 2013.
"Australian Infantry wearing SBRs": Cpt. Hurley, Frank. 1917. Australian War Memorial Photograph Collection, ID E00825.
Propaganda Poster: "It is far better to face the bullets than to be killed by a bomb." color film copy transparency. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. ID 3g10972.
Header: "Soldiers returning from WWI parading through arch in Minneapolis." Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. Reproduction No. LC-USZ62-78370
Map of Empire: McMurray, Frank. "Figure 1 -- Map of the World showing possessions of the United States, Great Britain, France, and Germany." The Geography of the Great War. The MacMillan Co, 1919.
"The Archduke": Pietzner, Karl. "Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand von Österreich-Este, portrait." Published in "War of the Nations" New York Times 1919.
"French Soldiers in Trench": Tournassoud, Jean-Baptiste. c. 1916, Establissement Cinematographique et Photographique des Armees. http://www.awm.gov.au/exhibitions/captured/french/trench.asp
The Kaiser: PD scan by user Generale dei Bersaglieri retrieved from wikimedia http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kaiser_Guglielmo_II.jpg.
Pillbox: Photo by Blake Johnson, Sept 2013.
"Australian Infantry wearing SBRs": Cpt. Hurley, Frank. 1917. Australian War Memorial Photograph Collection, ID E00825.
Propaganda Poster: "It is far better to face the bullets than to be killed by a bomb." color film copy transparency. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. ID 3g10972.
Header: "Soldiers returning from WWI parading through arch in Minneapolis." Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. Reproduction No. LC-USZ62-78370